ShutTree

F-16

2005-04-05T14:11:00.000-07:00

Also called Fighting Falcon, single-seat, single-engine jet fighter built by the General Dynamics Corporation (now part of the Lockheed Martin Corporation) for the United States and more than a dozen other countries. The F-16 originated in an order placed in 1972 for a lightweight, cost-effective air-to-air fighter; current models are also all-weather capable, and it is effective for ground attack as well.

Thomism

2005-04-02T00:03:00.000-08:00

Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, Thomism continued to be presented in philosophy and theology courses or manuals, especially in the Dominican Order. Most Thomistic manuals of this period were watered with the opinions of other Schoolmen and remained remote from modern problems. In most Catholic seminaries and universities of the early 19th century, eclecticism

Elijah

2005-04-01T01:33:00.000-08:00

Elijah was from Tishbe in Gilead. The narrative in 1 Kings relates how he suddenly appears during Ahab's reign to proclaim a drought in punishment of the cult of Baal that Jezebel was promoting in Israel at Yahweh's expense. Later Elijah meets 450 prophets of Baal in a contest of strength on Mount Carmel to determine which deity is the true God of Israel. Sacrifices are placed

Arts, Central Asian

2005-03-29T22:59:00.000-08:00

Middletown

2005-03-27T09:14:00.000-08:00

City, coextensive with the town (township) of Middletown, Middlesex county, central Connecticut, U.S., on the Connecticut River. Settled by Puritans in 1650 and incorporated as a town in 1651, it occupies the site of the Indian village of Mattabesec (Mattabesett). It was named in 1653 for its position between the upstream towns and the river mouth. The city, chartered in 1784, consolidated with

Anomie

2005-03-26T04:38:00.000-08:00

The term was introduced by the French sociologist Émile Durkheim in his study of suicide. He believed that one type of suicide (anomic) resulted from the breakdown of the social standards necessary for regulating behaviour.

Mercury Processing

2005-03-23T14:11:00.000-08:00

Mercury (Hg) has a unique combination of physical properties. Its low melting point (-38.87° C [-38° F]) and boiling point (356.9° C [674° F]), high specific gravity (13.5 grams per cubic centimetre), uniform volume expansion over the entire range of temperatures in its liquid state, and high surface tension (so that it does not wet glass) make it useful for

Quicksand

2005-03-23T10:01:00.000-08:00

State in which saturated sand loses its supporting capacity and acquires the character of a liquid. Quicksand is usually found in hollows at the mouths of large rivers or along flat stretches of streams or beaches where pools of water become partially filled with sand and an underlying layer of stiff clay or other dense material prevents drainage. Mixtures of

Quindío

2005-03-21T23:45:00.000-08:00

Departamento, west-central Colombia, on the western slopes of the Andean Cordillera Central. The smallest department in the nation, it occupies an area of 712 square miles (1,845 square km) in one of Colombia's leading coffee-producing regions. Bananas, corn (maize), sugarcane, and beans are among the other crops, and livestock raising is widespread. Quindío has rich deposits of

Shiels, Robert

2005-03-21T10:36:00.000-08:00

Moving to London, where he was a printer, Shiels was employed by Samuel Johnson as an amanuensis on the Dictionary of the English Language. When this work was completed, Shiels, with others, began the compilation of a five-volume The Lives of the Poets of Great Britain and Ireland, to the Time of Dean

Team Roping

2005-03-20T04:44:00.000-08:00

Rodeo event in which two mounted cowboys attempt to rope and immobilize a full-grown steer. The event is timed, and the team with the lowest time wins. The team is allowed three throws. The first roper, called the header, must rope the steer about the head, and his partner, called the heeler, must rope both of the animal's hindfeet, bringing the steer to a halt without throwing

Nigeria

2005-03-19T22:38:00.000-08:00

During 2000 Pres. Olusegun Obasanjo took a variety of steps to secure Nigeria's transition to democracy. Chief among these were reform of the military and the curbing of government corruption. President Obasanjo, himself a former general, continued to force the retirement of officers who had held political positions under previous military governments. In June he

Adams, Samuel Hopkins

2005-03-18T16:33:00.000-08:00

One of the so-called muckrakers of the period, Adams

Severoceský

2005-03-17T01:04:00.000-08:00

Also called Severní Cechy , English Northern Bohemia kraj (region), northwestern Czech Republic. It is the smallest of the country's regions. Severoceský is bounded on the north by Germany and Poland, on the east by Východoceský kraj, on the south by Stredoceský kraj, and on the west by Západoceský kraj. The north of the region is dominated by the Ore (Krušné), Ceské Stredo, Lusatian (Luzické), and Jizera (Jizerské) mountains. Through a gap in

Clonmel

2005-03-15T13:51:00.000-08:00

Irish Cluain Meala municipal borough and seat of Tipperary South Riding, Ireland. It lies on the River Suir. A noted sporting centre, it has fine scenery, with the Comeragh Mountains to the south and the Slievenamon peak to the northeast. Clonmel received its charter in the reign of Edward I (1239–1307). The novelist Laurence Sterne was born there in 1713. Industries include the making of pharmaceuticals

Kaiser, Georg

2005-03-15T06:32:00.000-08:00

Kaiser went to Argentina as a clerk, but ill health forced him to return to Germany. During a long convalescence he wrote his first plays, mainly satirical comedies that attracted little attention. His first success was Die Bürger von Calais (1914; The Burghers of Calais). Produced in 1917 at the height

Hernici

2005-03-14T18:37:00.000-08:00

Ancient people of Italy, whose territory was in Latium between the Fucine Lake (modern Fucino) and the Trerus (modern Sacco) River, bounded by the Volsci on the south and by the Aequi and the Marsi on the north. In 486 BC they were still strong enough to conclude a treaty with the Romans on equal terms. They broke away from Rome in 362–358. In 306 their chief town, Anagnia (Anagni), was taken by the

Ze'evi, Rechavam

2005-03-13T05:20:00.000-08:00

Israeli soldier and politician (b. Aug. 20, 1926, Jerusalem, Palestine—d. Oct. 17, 2001, Jerusalem, Israel), pursued hard-line ultranationalist policies, most notably in support of his outspoken belief that all Palestinians should be removed from the Israel-occupied territories in Gaza and the West Bank and transferred to Arab countries and his claim that the kingdom of Jordan should

Ryzhkov, Nikolay

2005-03-11T13:19:00.000-08:00

Little is known with certainty of Ryzhkov's early career. He seems to have begun his working career as a miner and then, by 1950, was a shift foreman at the Ordzhonikidze Uralmash plant (for heavy machinery) in the Urals, later rising to positions of shop superintendent and deputy manager. In 1956 he joined the Communist Party, and in 1959 he graduated

Estaing, Charles-hector, Comte (count) D'

2005-03-11T03:23:00.000-08:00

D'Estaing served in India during the Seven Years' War and was governor of the Antilles (1763–66). He was appointed vice admiral in 1767 and in 1778 attempted to surprise the English squadrons in North America and enable the colonists

Abbott, Sir John

2005-03-10T10:34:00.000-08:00

Educated at McGill University, Montreal, Abbott became a lawyer in 1847 and was made queen's counsel in 1862. He served as dean of the McGill faculty of law from 1855 to 1880. He was elected to the Legislative Assembly of the then-united province of Canada in 1857 and

Business And Industry Review, Clothing.

2005-03-10T03:20:00.000-08:00

In 1995 the apparel industry continued its slump as consumers directed discretionary income toward the purchase of cars and home-related and electronic products. Both Martha Stewart (see BIOGRAPHIES), who was held responsible for the "Martha Stewartization" of America, and the aging of the baby-boom generation were cited as reasons for the shift. Also, women--who continued

Rubbia, Carlo

2005-03-08T10:01:00.000-08:00

Italian physicist who in 1984 shared with Simon van der Meer the Nobel Prize for Physics for the discovery of the massive, short-lived subatomic W particle and Z particle. These particles are the carriers of the so-called weak force involved in the radioactive decay of atomic nuclei. Their existence strongly confirms the validity of the electroweak

Rossi, Aldo

2005-03-07T19:50:00.000-08:00

Italian architect (b. May 3, 1931, Milan, Italy--d. Sept. 4, 1997, Milan), created simple yet powerful works by using such geometric shapes as cones, cylinders, and squares and by making skillful use of light and shadow. Rossi was educated at the Milan Polytechnic and following graduation (1959) went to work for the design magazine Casabella, becoming its editor in 1964. In 1966 he set forth his architecture

Sung-chiang

2005-03-06T11:07:00.000-08:00

It first became an independent county in 751 under the name of Hua-t'ing, and in 1278 its name was changed to Sung-chiang. It was a superior prefecture under the Ming (1368–1644) and Ch'ing (1644–1911) dynasties and grew into

Alcalá, Calle De

2005-03-05T16:47:00.000-08:00

One of the main thoroughfares of Madrid. It originates at the eastern edge of the Puerta del Sol (the focal point and principal square of the city) and runs northeast approximately 4 mi (6 km) through the Plaza de la Independencia and the Puerta de Alcalá (a gateway originally built in 1599 and rebuilt in 1778). A broad, tree-lined avenue, it contains government offices and banks and is

Linus

2005-03-04T02:28:00.000-08:00

According to the Argive story, Linus, child of Apollo (god of light, truth, and prophecy) and Psamathe (daughter of Crotopus, king of Argos),

Europe

2005-03-03T18:52:00.000-08:00

Second smallest of the world's continents, composed of the westward-projecting peninsulas of Eurasia and occupying nearly one-fifteenth of the world's total land area. It is bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the south (west to east) by the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea, the Kuma and Manych rivers, and the Caspian Sea. The

Alva

2005-03-01T13:03:00.000-08:00

City, seat (1907) of Woods county, northwestern Oklahoma, U.S., on Salt Fork of the Arkansas River near the Kansas border. Established as a land office in 1893 at a Santa Fe Railway stop, it was named for Alva Adams, a railroad attorney and governor of Colorado (1887–89). It is a marketing and processing centre for a wheat and livestock area. Manufactures include tractors and furniture; petroleum

Antigonid Dynasty

2005-03-01T11:26:00.000-08:00

Ruling house of ancient Macedonia from 306 to 168 BC. The Antigonid dynasty was established when Demetrius I Poliorcetes, the son of Antigonus I Monophthalmus, ousted Cassander's governor of Athens, Demetrius of Phaleron, and conquered the island of Cyprus, thereby giving his father control of the Aegean, the eastern Mediterranean, and all of the Middle East except Babylonia.

Norrisla Guardia Act

2005-02-28T23:31:00.000-08:00

(1932), in the history of the United States, legislative act that removed certain legal and judicial barriers against the activities of organized labour. The act declared that the members of labour unions should have “full freedom of association” unmolested by employers, and it made illegal the “yellow-dog” contracts by which employers had forced workers to state that they

Bonaparte, (marie-)pauline

2005-02-27T04:08:00.000-08:00

She married Gen. C.V.E. Leclerc (1772–1802), a staff officer of Napoleon, in 1797 and accompanied him to San Domingo. When Leclerc died of yellow fever she returned to Paris. She then married Prince Camillo Borghese (Nov. 6, 1803) and went with him to Rome, but soon tired of him,

Arabian Desert, Climate

2005-02-26T11:05:00.000-08:00

The Arabian Desert spreads across 22° of latitude, from the 12th to the 34th parallel north; although much of the desert lies north of the Tropic of Cancer, it usually is considered a tropical desert. Summer heat is intense, reaching temperatures as high as 129 °F (54 °C) in places. In the interior the heat is dry. Coastal regions and some highlands, however, are subject to high summer humidity,

Châtelet

2005-02-26T08:04:00.000-08:00

In Paris, the principal seat of common-law jurisdiction under the French monarchy from the Middle Ages to the French Revolution. Located on the right bank of the Seine River, the building was originally a small fort that guarded the northern approach to the Île de la Cité. Frequently rebuilt, it was known as the Grand Châtelet to distinguish it from the Petit Châtelet

Fairbanks, Charles Warren

2005-02-24T18:54:00.000-08:00

Fairbanks had considered seeking the presidency in 1900 and was mentioned as a potential running mate to William McKinley. As a staunch conservative from a “doubtful” state, Fairbanks was chosen as Roosevelt's running mate in 1904 to balance the ticket. A typical vice president of his time, he did not attend cabinet meetings and was not one of Roosevelt's closest advisers. Although he was nominated by Indiana for president in 1908 and received 40 votes at the Republican National Convention, Roosevelt blocked his nomination in favour of William Howard Taft. When the party was divided in 1912, Fairbanks supported Taft, the eventual nominee, instead of Roosevelt, who ran as the candidate of his own Bull Moose Party. He also ran unsuccessfully for vice president on the 1916 ticket headed by Charles Evans Hughes.

Indian Ocean, Ocean basins

2005-02-23T19:23:00.000-08:00

Ocean basins are characterized by smooth, flat plains of thick sediment with abyssal hills (i.e., less than 3,300 feet high) at the bottom flanks of the oceanic ridges. The Indian Ocean's complex ridge topography led to the formation of many basins that range in width from 200 to 5,600 miles. From roughly north to south they include the Arabian, Somali, Mascarene, Madagascar, Mozambique,

Berdyayev, Nikolay Aleksandrovich

2005-02-19T09:23:00.000-08:00

During his student days at Kiev

Juan Fernández Islands

2005-02-19T06:22:00.000-08:00

Spanish Islas Juan Fernández, small cluster of islands in the South Pacific Ocean, situated about 400 miles (650 km) west of and administratively part of Valparaíso región, Chile. They consist of the 36-square-mile (93-square-kilometre) Isla Más a Tierra (Nearer Land Island, also called Isla Róbinson Crusoe); the 33-square-mile Isla Más Afuera (Farther Out Island, also called Isla Alejandro Selkirk), 100 miles to the west;

Permafrost

2005-02-18T20:31:00.000-08:00

The thickness and areal distribution of permafrost are directly affected by snow and vegetation cover, topography, bodies of water, the interior heat of the Earth, and the temperature of the atmosphere, as mentioned earlier.

Západní Slovensko

2005-02-18T05:11:00.000-08:00

Czech Západoslovenský , English Western Slovakia kraj (region), southwestern Slovakia. It is bordered on the northwest by the Czech Republic, on the southwest by Austria, on the southeast by Hungary, and on the northeast by Strední Slovensko kraj. Plains formed by the Morava (March), Danube (Dunaj), Váh, Nitra, and Hron rivers dominate the southern part of the region. Wheat, rye, barley, corn (maize), vegetables, hemp, grapes, and tobacco

Grunge

2005-02-15T16:52:00.000-08:00

Influenced by punk rock, by

Aldrich, Thomas Bailey

2005-02-15T04:41:00.000-08:00

Aldrich left school at 13 to work as a merchant's clerk in New York City and soon began to contribute to various newspapers

Nicholas V

2005-02-14T18:11:00.000-08:00

Original name Tommaso Parentucelli influential Renaissance pope (reigned 1447–55) and founder of the Vatican Library. Soon after his election, he brought to an end the schism caused by rivalries between popes and councils. By 1455 he had restored peace to the Papal States and to Italy. He began a program for the rebuilding of many of Rome's architectural wonders, including St. Peter's

Alaskan Malamute

2005-02-13T19:25:00.000-08:00

Sled dog developed by the Malemiut, an Eskimo group from which it takes its name. The Alaskan Malamute is a strongly built dog, with a broad head, erect ears, and a plumelike tail carried over its back. Its thick coat is usually gray and white or black and white, the colours frequently forming a caplike or masklike marking on the head. The Alaskan Malamute stands about 23 to

Ocean, Spreading centre zones and associated phenomena

2005-02-12T06:34:00.000-08:00

Spreading centres are divided

Vitamin A

2005-02-11T11:36:00.000-08:00

A fat-soluble alcohol, most abundant in fish and especially in fish-liver oils. Vitamin A is also found in butter and in the liver fat of various animals. Vitamin A is not present in plants, but many vegetables and fruits contain one or more of a class of pigments that can be converted to vitamin A in the body; of these pigments, b-carotene (provitamin A) is an excellent source

Confederation Group

2005-02-09T13:25:00.000-08:00

Canadian English-language poets of the late 19th century whose work expressed the national consciousness inspired by the Confederation of 1867. Their transcendental and romantic praise of the Canadian landscape dominated Canadian poetry until the 20th century. The Confederation group is also called the Maple Tree school because of the love characteristically shown

Caccini, Giulio

2005-02-09T08:09:00.000-08:00

Also called Giulio Romano singer and composer whose songs greatly helped to establish and disseminate the new monodic music introduced in Italy about 1600. This is music in which an expressive melody is accompanied by evocative chords, as opposed to the traditional polyphonic style with its complex interweaving of several melodic

Karaje Rug

2005-02-08T10:20:00.000-08:00

Also called Karadagh, floor covering handmade in or near the village of Qarajeh (Karaje), in the Qareh Dagh (Karadagh) region just south of the Azerbaijan border, northeast of Tabriz, Iran. The best-known pattern shows three geometric medallions that are somewhat similar to Caucasian carpets. The central one has a latch-hooked contour and differs in colour from the others, which are eight-pointed

Antwerp, Government

2005-02-07T06:48:00.000-08:00

Like all Belgian municipalities, Antwerp is governed by an elected city council, which in turn elects a board of aldermen, headed by a burgomaster, nominated by the king on recommendation of the council. Generally the burgomaster is a member of the elected council, but this is not obligatory. Each alderman has a specified department to manage, but decisions and resolutions

Leverkusen

2005-02-06T22:18:00.000-08:00

City, North Rhine-Westphalia Land (state), west-central Germany, on the Rhine River at the mouth of the Wupper River, in the Dhünn valley just north of Cologne. Formed in 1930 by the union of the villages of Schlebusch, Rheindorf, and Steinbüchel with the town of Wiesdorf, it is well served by highway and rail and is the site of the Bayer Works (chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and photographic

Gershwin, Ira

2005-02-05T18:50:00.000-08:00

Original name Israel Gershvin American lyricist who collaborated with his younger brother, George Gershwin, on more than 20 Broadway musicals and motion pictures until George's death (1937) and who later collaborated on films and plays with others—Moss Hart, Kurt Weill, Jerome Kern, Harry Warren, and Harold Arlen—and contributed to Gershwin

Minahasan

2005-02-03T23:07:00.000-08:00

People inhabiting the northernmost extension of the island of Celebes, Indonesia, in and around the port town of Manado. Of Proto-Malay stock, the Minahasan, formerly headed by chiefs, are now organized patrilineally under headmen, and land is owned communally by each village. Extended families are bound to undivided estates that are apportioned according to the

Performing Arts, Far East.

2005-02-03T08:48:00.000-08:00

A few Japanese films stood out from the commercial run. In Dolls, Takeshi Kitano linked three contemporary love stories inspired by the traditional bunraku doll theatre. Kitano's own early career in vaudeville was imaginatively chronicled by Makoto Shinozaki in Asakusa Kid. Akira Kurosawa's former assistant Takashi Koizumi adapted a novel by Keishi Nagi and

Syria, Air transport

2005-02-01T16:58:00.000-08:00

Syria has international airports at Damascus and Aleppo and domestic airports at al-Qamishli, Latakia, Dayr az-Zawr, and Tadmur. The facilities at Damascus and Aleppo can handle jet aircraft. International services connect Syria with Arab, other Asian, and European countries. Domestic services are provided by Syrian Arab Airways.

Water Softener

2005-02-01T14:47:00.000-08:00

Device for removing calcium and magnesium from water; water so treated will not form insoluble scale in pipes and tanks and will not form a precipitate with soaps or interfere with other cleaners. Water softeners usually consist of zeolite or an ion-exchange resin (q.v.) in a tank connected directly into the water system. The zeolite or resin contains sodium ions that

Abijah

2005-01-31T02:16:00.000-08:00

Also spelled Abia, Hebrew Abiyyah, or Abiyyahu (“Yahweh Is My Father”), any of nine different persons mentioned in the Bible, of whom the most noteworthy are the following: (1) The son and successor of Rehoboam, king of Judah (II Chronicles 12:16, 13), who reigned about two years (c. 915–913 BC). (2) The second son of Samuel (I Samuel 8:2; I Chronicles 6:28), who, with his brother Joel, served as a judge at Beersheba. The elders of Israel made the pair's misconduct a pretext

Taboret

2005-01-29T22:19:00.000-08:00

The name acquired a more specialized meaning in France in the late 17th century, when it referred to upholstered stools provided at the palace of Versailles for the more privileged ladies of the court of Louis XIV to sit

Blaby

2005-01-29T09:39:00.000-08:00

District, county of Leicestershire, south-central England. It covers the southern and western suburbs of the city of Leicester, in an arc around the city boundary from southeast to northwest, and extends southwest across a mostly rural area almost to the county boundary with Warwickshire on the southwest. Blaby district is administered from Narborough. Other important

Macdiarmid, Hugh

2005-01-27T10:00:00.000-08:00

The son of a postman, MacDiarmid was educated at Langholm Academy and the University of Edinburgh. After serving in World War I he became a journalist in Montrose, Angus, where he edited three issues of the first

Earth, Folding

2005-01-27T03:57:00.000-08:00

Folds along subduction zones

Water Rat

2005-01-24T06:38:00.000-08:00

Any of 18 species of amphibious carnivorous rodents. They exhibit many adaptations associated with hunting in water for food and burrowing along streams, rivers, and lakes. The eyes are small, the nostrils can be closed to keep water out, and the external portion of the ears is either small and furry or absent. Highly sensitive whiskers are abundant on the fleshy blunt

Aguesseau, Henri-françois D'

2005-01-22T15:04:00.000-08:00

The son of Henri d'Aguesseau, intendant (royal agent) of Languedoc, he was advocate general to the Parlement (high court of justice) of Paris from 1690 until 1700. As attorney general in that Parlement from 1700 to 1717, he opposed papal intervention

Argonne

2005-01-22T10:09:00.000-08:00

Wooded, hilly region in eastern France that forms a natural barrier between Champagne and Lorraine. The Argonne is about 40 miles long and 10 miles wide (65 by 15 km). The hilly massif rarely exceeds 650 feet (200 m) in elevation but is slashed with numerous deep valleys formed by watercourses associated with the Aire and Aisne rivers, which constitute a barrier to transportation. The

Houston, Edwin James

2005-01-20T08:39:00.000-08:00

A Philadelphia high school teacher, Houston collaborated with Elihu Thomson in experimenting on induction coils, dynamos, wireless transmission, and the design of an arc lighting system (patented in 1881) that was widely successful

Biblical Literature, Purification laws

2005-01-20T05:28:00.000-08:00

With chapter 11 begin the regulations on ritual cleanness and uncleanness, starting with animals and other living things fit and unfit to eat—the basis of the famous Jewish dietary laws. Then come the uncleanness and required purification of women after childbirth, skin diseases, healed lepers, infected houses, and genital discharges. Chapter 16, which belongs in the

Bhaisajya-guru

2005-01-18T17:05:00.000-08:00

(Sanskrit), Tibetan Sman-bla-rgyal-po , Chinese Yao-shih-fo , Japanese Yakushi Nyorai the healing Buddha, widely worshiped in Tibet, China, and Japan. According to popular belief in those countries, some illnesses are effectively cured by merely touching his image or calling out his name. More serious illnesses, however, require the performance of complex ritual acts, as described in the principal scripture of the Bhaisajya-guru cult. Bhaisajya-guru

Raynouard, François-juste-marie

2005-01-18T13:13:00.000-08:00

Trained as a lawyer, Raynouard was elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1791. In 1793 he was imprisoned on political grounds but was released in 1794 after the fall of Robespierre. His first play, Caton d'Utique, was published

Azo Compound

2005-01-16T18:56:00.000-08:00

Most aromatic

Physical Medicine And Rehabilitation

2005-01-15T22:13:00.000-08:00

Also called Physiatry, Physical Therapy, or Rehabilitation Medicine, medical specialty concerned with the treatment of chronic disabilities and with the restoration of normal functioning to the disabled through physical modes of treatment, such as exercise. This specialized medical service is generally aimed at rehabilitating persons disabled by pain or ailments affecting the motor functions of the body. Physical medicine

France, History Of, France from 1789 to 1815

2005-01-14T17:30:00.000-08:00

The best overview of the period is D.M.G. Sutherland, France 1789–1815: Revolution and Counter-Revolution (1985). General surveys of the French Revolution include William Doyle, The Oxford History of the French Revolution (1989); and Norman Hampson, A Social History of the French Revolution (1963, reprinted 1982). The origins and the first phase of the Revolution are treated in Michel Vovelle, The Fall of the French Monarchy, 1787–1792 (1984; originally published in French, 1972). The best book on the Terror is still R.R. Palmer, Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution (1941, reissued 1989). Martyn Lyons, France Under the Directory (1975), surveys the Revolution's later phase. François Furet and Mona Ozouf (eds.), A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution (1989; originally published in French, 1988), is an important and original collection of short essays on selected events, actors, institutions, ideas, and historians of the French Revolution. Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (1984), analyzes the imagery and sociology of revolutionary politics. Notable thematic studies include Georges Lefebvre, The Great Fear of 1789: Rural Panic in Revolutionary France (1973, reissued 1989; originally published in French, 1932); P.M. Jones, The Peasantry in the French Revolution (1988); Albert Soboul, The Parisian Sans-culottes and the French Revolution, 1793–4, trans. from French (1964, reprinted 1979); George Rudé, The Crowd in the French Revolution (1959, reprinted 1986); John McManners, The French Revolution and the Church (1969, reprinted 1982); Jean-Paul Bertaud, The Army of the French Revolution (1988; originally published in French, 1979); Emmet Kennedy, A Cultural History of the French Revolution (1989); and Jacques Godechot, The Counter-Revolution: Doctrine and Action, 1789–1804 (1971, reissued 1981; originally published in French, 1961). The international dimension of the Revolution is interpreted in R.R. Palmer, The World of the French Revolution (1971). The best biography of a revolutionary leader is Leo Gershoy, Bertrand Barère: A Reluctant Terrorist (1962). A lively introduction to the Napoleonic era is J. Christopher Herold, The Age of Napoleon (1963, reprinted 1987). Informative volumes on the life and times of Napoleon include Felix Markham, Napoleon (1963); and Jean Tulard, Napoleon: The Myth of the Saviour (1984; originally published in French, 1977). The best volume on the Napoleonic regime in France is Louis Bergeron, France Under Napoleon (1981; originally published in French, 1972). Owen Connelly, Blundering to Glory: Napoleon's Military Campaigns (1987), is a critical and incisive analysis. For the views of historians across the generations, see Pieter Geyl, Napoleon: For and Against (1949, reissued 1976; originally published in Dutch, 1946).

Alekseyev, Mikhail Vasilyevich

2005-01-13T09:46:00.000-08:00

The son of a private soldier, Alekseyev entered the Russian Army in 1876 and was graduated in 1890 from

Rocket And Missile System

2005-01-12T23:49:00.000-08:00

Strategic missiles represent a logical step in the attempt to attack enemy forces at a distance. As such, they can be seen as extensions of either artillery (in the case of ballistic missiles) or manned aircraft (in the case of cruise missiles). Ballistic missiles are rocket-propelled weapons that travel by momentum in a high, arcing trajectory after they have been launched

Domestic Service

2005-01-11T03:11:00.000-08:00

In ancient Greece, Rome, and various other early civilizations, domestic

Industrial Glass

2005-01-10T10:48:00.000-08:00

Solid material that is normally lustrous and transparent in appearance and that shows great durability under exposure to the natural elements. These three properties—lustre, transparency, and durability—make glass a favoured material for such household objects as windowpanes, bottles, and lightbulbs. However, neither any of these properties alone nor all of

Mitre, Bartolomé

2005-01-08T20:43:00.000-08:00

Growing up in Buenos Aires under the dictatorship of Juan Manuel de Rosas, Mitre began a 15-year exile in 1837. Travelling to Uruguay, Bolivia,

Floral Decoration, 15th and 16th centuries

2005-01-07T19:50:00.000-08:00

Floral decorations became more studied and elaborate during the Renaissance period of the 15th and 16th centuries. The revival of interest in antiquity influenced the widespread use of garlands and wreaths in Renaissance Europe, especially in Italy. They were popular for pageants and feasts as well as for decorating houses and churches, and were commonly depicted

Gabardine

2005-01-06T21:43:00.000-08:00

Any of several varieties of worsted, cotton, silk, and mixed tightly woven fabrics, embodying certain features in common and chiefly made into suits and overcoats. It is a relatively strong and firm cloth, made with a twill weave, and somewhat resembling whipcord but of lighter texture. The weft, or filling, lies entirely at the back and is therefore not visible from the

D-day

2005-01-05T20:50:00.000-08:00

(in World War II), first day of the Allied landing in Normandy, France. See Normandy Invasion.

Lupercalia

2005-01-04T21:32:00.000-08:00

Ancient Roman festival that was conducted annually on February 15 under the superintendence of a corporation of priests called Luperci. The origins of the festival are obscure, although the likely derivation of its name from lupus (Latin: “wolf”) has variously suggested connection with a primitive deity who protected herds from wolves and with the legendary she-wolf

France, History Of, Regrowth of the French monarchy

2005-01-03T10:15:00.000-08:00

Thus the monarchy recovered much of the authority it had lost during the early stages of the Hundred Years' War. Although its influence in Burgundy and Flanders, now united in a formidable dynastic association, had declined, its definitive recovery of Aquitaine consolidated a direct domain, again extensive enough to free the Valois from anxiety about landed resources.

Biblical Literature, The Ethiopic version

2005-01-01T06:58:00.000-08:00

The Ethiopic version poses special problems. The earliest Bible probably was based on Greek versions, after Ethiopia had been converted to Christianity during the 4th and 5th centuries. The earliest existing manuscripts, however, belong to the 13th century. Most manuscripts from the 14th century on seem to reflect Arabic or Coptic influence, and it is not certain whether

Rom

2004-12-29T18:08:00.000-08:00

Plural Roma , also called Gypsy , also spelled Gipsy any member of the traditionally itinerant people who originated in northern India but live in modern times worldwide, principally in Europe. Most Roma speak some form of Romany, a language closely related to the modern Indo-European languages of northern India, as well as the major language of the country in which they live. It is generally agreed that Roma groups

Gulf

2004-12-27T18:45:00.000-08:00

Most existing gulfs were formed or greatly extended as a result of the rise in sea level that accompanied the melting of the last Pleistocene glacial ice mass, as vast sections of the continental margins were drowned. Some pronounced

Cloud Chamber

2004-12-25T13:17:00.000-08:00

Radiation detector, originally developed between 1896 and 1912 by the Scottish physicist C.T.R. Wilson, that has as the detecting medium a supersaturated vapour that condenses to tiny liquid droplets around ions produced by the passage of energetic charged particles, such as alpha particles, beta particles, or protons. In a Wilson cloud chamber, supersaturation is caused

Nigeria, Relief

2004-12-24T01:40:00.000-08:00

In general, the topography of Nigeria consists of plains in the north and south interrupted by plateaus and hills in the centre of the country. The Sokoto Plains are in the northwestern corner of the country, while the Borno Plains in the northeastern corner surround the Lake Chad region. The Lake Chad basin and the coastal areas, including the Niger River delta and

Earth, Seismic-wave velocity profiles

2004-12-21T13:25:00.000-08:00

The techniques of deep seismic sounding, carried out mainly in the United States and western Europe, have yielded high-resolution velocity profiles for the crust and uppermost mantle since the late 1960s. These studies, complemented by detailed waveform analyses and seismic tomography, prove conclusively that the crust and upper mantle can vary significantly in

Buckthorn

2004-12-19T22:27:00.000-08:00

The common, or European, buckthorn (R. cathartica), about 3.5 m (12 feet) high, native to Eurasia, is widely naturalized. It has dark bark, often

Teresina

2004-12-17T00:17:00.000-08:00

City, capital of Piauí estado (“state”), northeastern Brazil. The city lies along the Parnaíba River (there bridged to Timon in Maranhão state), 220 miles (354 km) upstream from the Atlantic port of Parnaíba. Founded in 1852 as the new capital of Piauí, it was originally named Therezina after the Brazilian empress Teresa Cristina. Since then, it has become the chief commercial centre of

La Marche, Olivier De

2004-12-16T04:51:00.000-08:00

After serving as a page to Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, La Marche entered the service of the Duke's son, the count of Charolais (later called Charles the Bold). He became Charles's secretary and remained in

Devanagari,

2004-12-14T05:39:00.000-08:00

Also called Nagari, Indian script used to write the Sanskrit, Prakrit, Hindi, and Marathi languages, developed from the North Indian monumental script known as Gupta and ultimately from the Brahmi alphabet, from which all modern Indian writing systems are derived. In use from the 7th century AD and occurring in its mature form from the 11th century onward, Devanagari is characterized by long, horizontal

Coral Reef

2004-12-12T11:37:00.000-08:00

Coral polyps resemble sea anemones, to which they are closely related, but, unlike most anemones, most reef corals are colonial. Initial polyps divide themselves into

'abbas Ii

2004-12-10T08:15:00.000-08:00

At the beginning of his reign, 'Abbas attempted to rule independently of Lord Cromer, the British agent and consul general in Egypt. Encouraged by popular

Hover Fly

2004-12-08T15:30:00.000-08:00

Also called Flower Fly, or Syrphid Fly, any member of the insect family Syrphidae (order Diptera), which numbers about 4,000 species. Their various common names refer to the behaviour of hovering around flowers. Hover flies, with their yellow markings, resemble wasps or bees but do not bite or sting. They are distinguished from other flies by a false (spurious) vein that closely parallels the fourth longitudinal

Abbe, Cleveland

2004-12-05T16:51:00.000-08:00

Trained as an astronomer, he was appointed director of the Cincinnati (Ohio) Observatory in 1868. His interest gradually turned to meteorology, however, and he inaugurated a public weather service that served

Argungu

2004-12-03T09:16:00.000-08:00

Town and traditional emirate, Kebbi state, northwestern Nigeria. The town is on the Sokoto (Kebbi) River and lies at the intersection of roads from Birnin Kebbi, Gwandu, Sokoto town, Augi, and Kaingiwa. The town is a collecting point for tobacco, grown in the surrounding riverine floodplains, and peanuts (groundnuts) and is a major local market centre for rice, millet, sorghum,

Argentina

2004-11-29T10:38:00.000-08:00

The federal republic of Argentina occupies the eastern section of the Southern Cone of South America, along the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 2,780,400 sq km (1,073,518 sq mi). Pop. (1993 est.): 33,507,000. Cap.: Buenos Aires. Monetary unit: peso, with (Oct. 4, 1993) an official rate of 1 peso to U.S. $1 (1.52 pesos = £ 1 sterling). President in 1993, Carlos Saúl Menem.

China, Popular uprising

2004-11-26T14:22:00.000-08:00

The third quarter of the 19th century saw a series of uprisings, again as a result of social discontent.

Sara Lee Corporation

2004-11-24T00:06:00.000-08:00

The company was incorporated in 1941 as the South Street Company and went through several name changes before it adopted the name Consolidated Grocers Corporation in 1945 and Consolidated Foods Corporation

Round, Henry Joseph

2004-11-22T14:13:00.000-08:00

Round worked with Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company, Ltd., from 1902 to 1914, first in the United States, where he improved the tuning components of radio receivers and built early radio direction